The Fall of the Roman Republic | Five Minute History

Julius Caesar, Cleopatra, Marc Antony, and Octavian transformed Rome’s political crisis into a struggle for control of the Mediterranean.

The death of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE led to thirteen years of war and ultimately to the end of the Roman Republic. By 30 BCE, Caesar’s most trusted lieutenant and the last queen of Egypt would be dead, and a young man Caesar met only once would become his adopted son and the most powerful man in Rome for over forty years. The story begins in Egypt.

A Family Feud in Egypt

Julius Caesar arrived in Egypt in pursuit of a rival general named Pompey. There, the thirteen-year-old King Ptolemy XIII greeted Caesar with Pompey’s decapitated head. Caesar soon found himself caught in the middle of a feud within Egypt’s ruling Ptolemaic family. King Ptolemy XII had willed his throne to his son, Ptolemy XIII, and his twenty-one-year-old daughter, Cleopatra. The pair were to rule Egypt as brother and sister and as husband and wife, but Ptolemy XIII seized total power and forced his older sister from the throne.

Julius Caesar stands before the boy king Ptolemy XIII and the royal adviser Pothinus in the Egyptian palace shortly after arriving in Alexandria. — When Ptolemy XII died in 51 BCE, he knew his children would probably fight over the throne. Hoping to prevent a civil war, he asked Rome to enforce his will naming Cleopatra and her younger brother as joint rulers. Instead, Rome became deeply involved in Egypt’s royal family dispute.

Cleopatra Meets Caesar

When Cleopatra learned Caesar was in Egypt, she saw an opportunity to return to power. According to legend, she arranged to smuggle herself into Caesar’s suite wrapped in a carpet. When it was unrolled, Caesar found the former queen inside.

Cleopatra convinced Caesar to remove Ptolemy and return her to power. Caesar’s army defeated Ptolemy XIII’s forces in battle, and the young king drowned while fleeing across the Nile River. Cleopatra returned to power and, following her family’s royal tradition of marrying close relatives to keep power within the family, married her younger brother, Ptolemy XIV.

Mark Antony and the teenage Octavian stand facing one another in a Roman reception hall shortly after Julius Caesar's assassination. — At their first meeting, Mark Antony figured Octavian would be easy to dismiss, but the young heir immediately displayed the confidence that came from being Caesar. Antony’s decision to underestimate him would ultimately cost him his life.

Caesar and Cleopatra

The 52-year-old Caesar began a love affair with the much younger Cleopatra. The pair traveled the Nile together where Caesar witnessed Cleopatra’s luxurious lifestyle. Although Caesar commanded Rome’s greatest army, the Egyptians worshipped Cleopatra as a goddess. Soon after their voyage, Cleopatra gave birth to Caesar’s only son, Caesarion.

Octavian Becomes Caesar’s Heir

Caesar was murdered in 44 BCE, plunging Rome back into civil war. Caesar’s most trusted general, Marc Antony, took control of Rome, but the dictator surprised everyone. His will named Octavian, his eighteen-year-old grandnephew, as his heir, or the person who would inherit his wealth and position. Octavian instantly became one of the wealthiest men in Rome, but even more important, Roman law allowed him to call himself Caesar.

Octavian came to Rome to claim his inheritance, but Marc Antony dismissed the young heir. Octavian raised an army of soldiers loyal to Julius Caesar, plunging Rome into months of turmoil. Eventually, Octavian and Marc Antony agreed to an uneasy truce, and Antony married Octavian’s sister to seal the alliance.

The Second Triumvirate

Octavian and Marc Antony formed the Second Triumvirate with a third general named Lepidus. Octavian remained in Rome while Antony took control of the empire’s eastern provinces. In 41 BCE, Antony summoned Cleopatra to explain her loyalty during Rome’s civil war. Instead, he fell in love with the Egyptian queen and moved to Alexandria to be with her.

Antony and Cleopatra

Cleopatra regained sole control of Egypt after the mysterious poisoning of Ptolemy XIV. Antony and Cleopatra fell in love and had three children together. Antony hoped to defeat Octavian and rule Rome and Egypt with Cleopatra, but Octavian used their relationship to his advantage. He convinced the Roman people that Cleopatra had bewitched Antony and that Antony planned to give Rome’s empire to a foreign queen. Octavian declared war on Cleopatra, forcing Marc Antony to choose between Cleopatra and Rome. Antony chose Cleopatra.

Mark Antony watches from a harbor as Cleopatra's lavish royal barge, with towering purple sails and gilded decorations, approaches the shore for their first meeting. — When Cleopatra sailed to meet Mark Antony, she intended to impress him before they exchanged a single word. According to Plutarch, her magnificent ship, richly decorated and crewed by synchronized rowers, announced the wealth and power of Egypt long before she reached the shore.

The Battle of Actium

Octavian’s forces defeated Antony and Cleopatra’s ships in the Battle of Actium on the Mediterranean Sea in 31 BCE. Antony and Cleopatra managed to escape, but Marc Antony committed suicide as Octavian’s army approached. When Cleopatra learned of Antony’s death, she chose to end her life on her own terms. According to legend, she wrapped an asp around her arm. The venomous snake, a symbol of Egyptian royalty, ended both Cleopatra’s life and the rule of the Ptolemys. Octavian stood alone as Rome’s most powerful man and would soon reshape Rome forever.

The Ptolemies: Alexander’s Last Legacy

When Alexander the Great died unexpectedly at age 33 in 323 BCE, he left behind no adult heir because his only son had not yet been born. Alexander’s generals fought for control of the empire. One of them, Ptolemy, seized Egypt and eventually declared himself king. His descendants ruled Egypt for nearly three centuries.

Although they ruled Egypt, the Ptolemies were Greek, not Egyptian. They spoke Greek, followed many Greek customs, and built the famous Library of Alexandria. To keep power within the royal family, they often married their brothers or sisters. Most of the kings were named Ptolemy, while many of the queens were named Cleopatra, a name that means “glory of her father.”

The famous Cleopatra was Cleopatra VII, about the twelfth ruler descended from Ptolemy I. When she died in 30 BCE, the Ptolemaic dynasty ended, and Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire.

Cleopatra in Rome

Shortly after Caesar returned to Rome, Cleopatra and Caesarion visited, staying in one of Caesar’s country homes because Caesar was still married to Calpurnia. Their relationship became the talk of Rome. Caesar further shocked many Romans by placing a golden statue of Cleopatra in the Temple of Venus Genetrix. Many Romans were outraged that a foreign queen seemed to receive such extraordinary honors in Rome. Others feared that Caesar himself planned to become king. Although many Romans were shocked by Caesar’s brazen behavior, they admired Caesar far more than they accepted Cleopatra.

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Mr. Donn has an excellent website that includes a section on Ancient Rome.

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