Octavian was the son of Julius Caesar’s niece. The first eighteen years of Octavian’s life were unremarkable, but a surprise in Julius Caesar’s will eventually led to his becoming Caesar Augustus, the ruler who transformed Rome into the greatest empire of the ancient world.
The Unexpected Heir
Julius Caesar was so popular with the Roman people that the Senate named him dictator for life. For five hundred years, the Roman government relied on two consuls serving one-year terms and taking advice from the Senate. But as a dictator, Julius Caesar ruled without considering Roman tradition or having to consult the Senate. Finally, in 44 BCE, a group of enraged senators stabbed the dictator to death.
Caesar’s will proclaimed that Octavian would be his heir and would be treated as his adopted son. Caesar’s decision made Octavian one of the wealthiest men in Rome. It also gave Octavian something even more valuable: the right to call himself Caesar.
The New Caesar
Two months after Julius Caesar’s murder, Octavian came to Rome to claim his inheritance, but Marc Antony dismissed the young man. Octavian spent the next several months gaining support from the Roman people. He also raised an army. Soldiers throughout the empire were loyal—not to Rome—but to the name Caesar. By the end of 44 BCE, both Marc Antony and Octavian commanded armies. Neither man could be certain of victory, so the two men avoided civil war by making a deal.
The Second Triumvirate
In 43 BCE, Octavian joined Antony and another general named Lepidus in a partnership historians call the Second Triumvirate. The triumvirate raised money by declaring more than 300 wealthy Romans outlaws. They seized the property of the newly designated outlaws and offered rewards to anyone who would kill them. The enemies of Octavian and Marc Antony who could not escape from Rome were killed.
The Battle for Rome
Octavian and Antony forced Lepidus into retirement in 36 BCE. Soon afterward, Antony abandoned Rome and returned to Egypt, where he and Cleopatra ruled together. Their growing alliance alarmed many Romans. In 31 BCE, Octavian destroyed Antony and Cleopatra’s fleet at the Battle of Actium. The defeated couple fled to Egypt, where both later committed suicide. Octavian returned to Rome as its undisputed ruler.
Octavian earned the loyalty of the Roman soldiers by providing the men with land. The soldiers retired, but because Octavian was Caesar, he knew he could count on their support if the Senate challenged his authority.
The Ordinary Emperor
Octavian lived a modest life to avoid the fate of Julius Caesar. He lived in a small house and traveled without bodyguards. Unlike Julius Caesar, Octavian was respectful toward the senators. He preferred to think of himself as Rome’s “First Citizen” rather than its king. Later in his career, Octavian allowed other men to serve as consuls. Still, the Senate knew that Octavian controlled the military, so he was the actual ruler of the Roman Empire.
In 27 BCE, Octavian arranged for the Senate to grant him the honorific title Augustus, which means “respected one.” During his rule, the Roman people knew Octavian only as Caesar, but historians, to avoid confusion with his famous granduncle, generally refer to him as Octavian before 27 BCE and Caesar Augustus after that.
The Pax Romana
Caesar Augustus ruled for 41 years, a period that saw Rome develop into a military empire, so historians consider him the first Roman emperor. For the first time in decades, most Romans no longer feared that another civil war would destroy their lives. He restored peace and order, ensuring the lands throughout the empire were well run and that taxes were fair. Trade flourished as merchants traveled safely along Roman roads and across the Mediterranean. He built roads and bridges, government buildings, and massive public baths. “I left Rome a city of marble,” Caesar said, “though I found it a city of brick.”
The armies of Caesar Augustus conquered most of Western Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. The Romans claimed the entire land surrounding the enormous Mediterranean Sea, which they nicknamed “a Roman lake.”
Rome’s army was so powerful that it protected citizens from attacks by the tribes who lived beyond the empire. Historian Edward Gibbon later described the two hundred years of peace that began with the rule of Caesar Augustus as the Pax Romana, or the “Peace of Rome.”
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Mr. Donn has an excellent website that includes a section on Ancient Rome.