In 1405, hundreds of ships sailed out of China to explore well beyond the boundaries of the world they knew. Over nearly three decades, Zheng He led seven expeditions across the Indian Ocean, traveling as far as the east coast of Africa. Then, as suddenly as they had begun, the voyages stopped.
Closing Off the World
Convinced China already possessed everything it needed, the Ming emperors abandoned their great fleet and gradually closed China to overseas exploration. For the next four centuries, China would try to shut out the outside world, a decision that would prove disastrous.
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The Ming emperors lived in the Forbidden City, a vast palace complex in Beijing off-limits to ordinary citizens. While the emperor enjoyed luxury, most Chinese toiled long days in rice fields, paid taxes, and depended on good harvests for survival.
The End of the Ming Dynasty
During the late Ming Dynasty, life became increasingly difficult as rampant government corruption and heavy tax demands coincided with severe crop failures and famine. By 1644, these desperate conditions sparked widespread revolts across northern China by starving peasants.
As a rebel army broke through the walls of the Forbidden City, the desperate emperor hanged himself. Historians still debate whether what happened next was a well-meaning act of desperation or treason, but General Wu Sangui ordered the Great Wall opened to allow the army of the neighboring Manchus in.
Warriors from the North
The Manchus were highly disciplined warriors from the rugged region northeast of the Great Wall known as Manchuria. Once past the wall, they quickly defeated the uprising. The Manchus then claimed the Mandate of Heaven and established the Qing Dynasty, beginning nearly three centuries of rule over China.
The Queue
Confucius had taught that a person’s body, including the hair, was a gift from one’s parents and should not be harmed. The new Qing rulers ordered every Han Chinese man to adopt the traditional Manchu hairstyle by shaving the front of his head and wearing the rest in a long braid called a queue. Refusing this was considered an act of rebellion and could cost a man his life. Every queue became a visible reminder that the Qing Dynasty, not the Han Chinese, ruled the empire.
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The West Encroaches
As the Qing Dynasty focused inward, Western nations rapidly modernized their militaries and manufacturing. British merchants sought Chinese luxury goods such as tea, silk, and porcelain. The Qing restricted foreign trade to a single port and demanded payment exclusively in silver. To secure the silver they needed for their purchases, British traders smuggled addictive opium from India into China, defying Chinese law by dealing with coastal outlaws for the silver needed for their purchases.
Desperate to halt the illegal drug trade, Qing officials began capturing British cargo ships and destroying millions of pounds of opium. When the traders reported what had happened to the British government, it retaliated by sending warships to China. Modern British gunboats easily destroyed China’s outdated defenses, forcing the Qing to sign treaties that surrendered Hong Kong and opened Chinese ports for trade that included opium.
A Desperate People
By 1860, China was plagued by addiction and deeply humiliated by foreign powers, as European nations joined the British in claiming pieces of the empire. Many Han Chinese also resented being ruled by the Qing, descendants of the foreign conquerors who had seized China more than two centuries earlier. The stage was set for the most deadly rebellion in world history.
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Mr. Donn has an excellent website that includes a section on Chinese History.