Francisco Pizarro and the Fall of the Incas

In 1532, a Spanish force of only 168 soldiers and 62 horses marched into the Andes—and brought down one of the mightiest empires the world has ever known. Led by Francisco Pizarro, the conquistadors crushed the Inca Empire without losing a single man. They had gunpowder, steel armor, and cannons, but their greatest advantage was timing: they arrived as the empire was already ravaged by disease and torn apart by civil war.

A Northern Capital

Huayna Capac was the last of three great Inca rulers. In 1520, he marched an army north to capture land now part of Ecuador, in the city now known as Quito, the capital of present-day Ecuador. The Inca ruler sent his son, Atahualpa (at-a-WHAL-pa), to lead an expedition into enemy territory, but the younger man was ambushed and forced to retreat.

Huayna Capac took command of his army to avenge the humiliation of his son. After many long and bloody battles, Huayna Capac subdued his foes. Enjoying the climate of his newly conquered territory, the Inca ruler ordered that a new palace be constructed for himself and his son.

A Great Illness

The Sapa Inca—meaning “Sole Ruler”—governed from his northern palace for five years until a great sickness passed through his empire. Modern evidence suggests the disease was smallpox, a European illness carried south by traders long before the first Europeans arrived in Inca territory. Smallpox spread throughout the trade routes of the empire and may have taken more than 200,000 lives.

Atahualpa had not distinguished himself, so when Huayna Capac became ill, he passed over Atahualpa and named another son to replace him. Before the ruler died, though, the illness also claimed his heir.

The Brothers Go to War

When the Inca nobles in Cusco, the Inca capital, learned of Huayna Capac’s death, they named another son, Huáscar, to be Sapa Inca. Atahualpa, who had been living with his father in the northern capital, declared himself to be ruler. Both brothers had powerful armies: Huáscar commanded the royal forces in Cusco, while Atahualpa commanded the northern army used to expand the empire. The two sons of Huayna Capac plunged the empire into a brutal civil war.

Atahualpa and Huáscar called on the mummified bodies of past Sapa Incas to assist them. The Incas believed their rulers were descendants of Inti, the sun god. When the Sapa Inca died, his body was preserved and treated as if it were still living. Mummies were carried into battle to advise the generals.

The civil war seemed to end in 1532 when Atahualpa’s army captured Huáscar. Huáscar watched as his wives, children, and relatives were executed in front of his eyes. Then, as Atahualpa made his triumphant return to Cusco as Sapa Inca, word spread of the arrival of bearded pale men riding atop huge animals.

A Surprise Encounter

The Inca did not know of writing, horses, or metal weapons, so what happened next took the empire by surprise. A priest appeared before Atahualpa and the Incas as Pizarro kept his horses and cannon hidden from view. The priest presented Atahualpa with a holy book, telling the ruler that it contained the word of God. The Sapa Inca did not understand writing, so he tossed the book to the ground. When the book dropped, Pizarro waved a white scarf to signal the attack to begin.

Spanish soldiers on horseback charged as others pulled the cannon from hiding and fired into the crowd. The terrified Incas trampled one another as they tried to flee. Pizarro seized Atahualpa and dragged the Sapa Inca through the chaos as a hostage.

Promises

Learning that the Spanish valued silver and gold, Atahualpa promised to fill a room larger than his prison with gold and silver in exchange for his freedom. The Inca ruler sent word to his generals—first to kill Huáscar, then to strip Cusco of gold and silver and deliver the treasure as ransom. The Sapa Inca had not lived in the city for many years, so he had little attachment to Cusco or its people. For six months, precious metals were carted from Cusco to Pizarro’s small camp. The Spaniards melted the gold and silver into bars and shipped the fortune to Spain.

Having kept his promise, Atahualpa expected to be freed. But Pizarro feared that his conquest would be in danger if the Sapa Inca lived, so he put Atahualpa on trial for killing Huáscar. A court of Pizarro’s soldiers found the Sapa Inca guilty. When Atahualpa was strangled, his body was left as a grim reminder that the Inca Empire had been conquered.